2022.01.07 闫振峰
1. 相关背景
近年来,由于商业航天的兴起,外层空间的卫星数量急速增加。根据联合国外层空间事务办公室检索系统1,截至2022年1月4日,共发射了12116个外层空间物体,其中2020年、2021年的发射量分别为1274、1807颗,仅美国太空探索技术公司(SpaceX)一家公司就发射了1955颗星链卫星(Starlink)。由此引发的卫星避碰也越来越成为热议的话题。
比如2019年9月3日,欧洲宇航局发布新闻称2:大约一周之前,美国空间部队通知欧洲宇航局,星链44号卫星有可能在2019年9月2日与欧洲宇航局的Aeolus卫星发生碰撞,此前Aeolus已经占据该位置约9个月3,8月28日,欧洲宇航局联系SpaceX公司询问其处理方案,SpaceX反馈其不打算采取任何措施。欧洲宇航局采取防碰措施的门槛是碰撞概率超过1/10000,鉴于碰撞概率已经升至1/1000,欧洲宇航局最后对Aeolus卫星进行了升轨操作以避免碰撞。
又比如2021年12月3日,中国常驻联合国(维也纳)代表团根据《关于各国探测及使用外空包括月球与其他天体之活动所应遵守原则之条约》(“《外层空间公约》”)向联合国秘书长发出普通照会称4:2021年,中国载人航天工程成功实施了5次发射任务,之后中国空间站组合体稳定运行在高度390千米附近的近圆轨道,轨道倾角约41.5°;在此期间,星链1095、星链2305卫星先后接近中国空间站。出于安全考虑,空间站组合体分别于7月1日和10月21日实施对星链卫星的紧急避碰措施。
可以预见的是,随着外层太空物体数量增加、以及随着人类发射空间物体的频率越来越高,类似避碰事件将有增无减。
2. 基于国际公约的救济
适用于卫星侵权的国际公约是《外空物体所造成损害的国际责任公约》(“《责任公约》”),该公约经联合国大会1971年11月29日第2777(XXVI)号决议通过并开放给各国签字、批准和加入,于1972年9月生效。中国和美国均已加入。
根据《责任公约》第2条5,发射国对其外空物体在地球表面及对飞行中的航空器所造成的损害,应当承担绝对赔偿责任;根据《责任公约》第3条6,如果一发射国的外空物体在地球表面以外的其他地方对另一发射国的外空物体或该外空物体所载的人或财产造成损害,只有前一国家或其所负责之人对导致损害存在过错时,前一国家才承担赔偿责任。对于“所负责之人”,《责任公约》并没有进行界定,但是根据《外层空间公约》”)第6条7约定,缔约国应当对本国政府机关或非政府机构在外层空间的活动负有国际责任,“所负责之人”应当理解为发射国政府之外的所有机构或自然人。
根据《责任公约》第9条8,索赔国对发射国的索赔应当通过外交途径提出。根据《责任公约》第14条9,如果索赔国提出索赔后1年内双方无法达成赔偿协议,则任何一国可以根据第15条10请求成立索赔委员会,索赔委员会有三名成员组成、索赔国和发射国各指定一名,第三名成员,即索赔委员会主席由双方共同指定,如果在4个月之内无法共同选定,则可请求联合国秘书长在2个月内指定索赔委员会主席。
虽然《责任公约》为卫星侵权初步奠定了法律基础,但是其具有鲜明的时代局限性,比如索赔在国家与国家之间通过外交途径进行,起草者可能没有预料到商业航天在21世纪会如此迅猛发展;又比如,公约对于如何界定“过错”没有详细的规则,对于如何确定“损害”也没有明确的规则。
由于《责任公约》的时代局限性,对于发生在太空的卫星碰撞的过错较难认定。但是根据《关于登记射入外层空间物体的公约》的原则11以及由13个国家组成国际机构间空间碎片协调委员会发布的《空间碎片缓解准则》第5.4条12的规定,理论上在后发射空间物体的国家应当承担主要避碰义务。但是,在没有发生实际碰撞的情况下,如果一国只是考虑到较大的碰撞概率,采取了避碰措施,由于很难认定实际损失,所以基本上很难向另一国主张赔偿。
3. 基于国内法的救济
根据《责任公约》第11条13,基于《责任公约》主张赔偿不以穷尽国内救济为前提,也不限制受害方在发射国的国内法院或裁判机构提起赔偿。对于太空交通事故,理论上可以提起侵权诉讼。
以2021年7月1日、10月21日星链1095、星链2305抵近中国空间站事件来说,由于这两个日期均有中国航天员在空间站执行任务14,理论上可以提起“Assault”侵权诉讼。美国的侵权法律已经将各种侵权行为类型化,有点类似刑法上的各种罪名,比如人身伤害侵权的术语是“Battery”,而“Assault”并没有对应的中国法律词语,暂且翻译为“人身伤害即刻威胁”。根据《侵权法律重述》第21条15,如果一个人对他人实施将导致伤害性或冒犯性接触的行为,或可以使他人即刻感知到将有这种接触,而且他人因此即刻感知将有这种接触,那么前者应当承担“人身伤害即刻威胁”的侵权责任。“人身伤害即刻威胁”属于故意侵权,需要首先证明侵权人存在主观故意,由于卫星发射轨迹或者变轨操作是精准控制的,所以对于是否发生可能与其他空间物体发生碰撞,卫星的发射方最起码应该是明知的(“Knowingly”)。另外,由于卫星在太空中高速移动,比如2009年2月10日俄罗斯宇宙2251号卫星与美国铱星33号卫星碰撞时的相对速度为11.64千米/秒,外层空间对于即刻感知威胁的判断标准应当有别于地面判断标准,一定时间内发生碰撞的概率可以作为参考判断标准,比如欧洲宇航局认为,如果72小时内的碰撞概率大于1/10000时将采取避碰措施。如果一定期间内碰撞概率已经超过阀值而发射人拒绝采取避碰措施,则应当认定为发射人存在故意且对已经在轨的空间物体中的人造成了即刻威胁。
再以2019年9月2日星链44号卫星抵近欧洲宇航局Aeolus卫星事件来说,由于只是对卫星本身构成碰撞危险,本质上可以理解为侵犯了后者在先轨道权利,或者损害了后者对卫星这一特殊动产的占有权,理论上可以提起类似“Trespass to Land”或“Trespass to Chattel”侵权诉讼,暂且翻译为“侵犯土地”和“侵犯动产”。“侵犯土地”的本质是侵犯权利人对特定地表区域的实际占有16,“侵犯动产”的本质是侵犯权利人对动产进行实际控制的权利17。“侵犯土地”要件之一是侵权人实际进入土地、“侵犯动产”要件之一是侵权人实际接触动产,在仅有卫星碰撞可能的情形下,可能无法满足这一要件;另外需要证明发生实际损害,如果在先占有轨道的空间物体采取避碰措施发生了成本,实际发生损害这一要件应该可以满足。除此之外,还可以考虑提起“Nuisance”的侵权诉讼,暂且翻译为“妨害使用土地”,指的侵权人的行为影响权利人使用或享用土地,侵权行为既可能是故意且不合理的行为,也可能是非故意但是属于过失行为、鲁莽行为或异常危险行为18,不以侵权人物理上进入土地为前提。传统的侵权理论都是基于人类在地球表面的物理活动发展出来的,用来解决太空卫星侵权实际上存在很多困难,仅能参考其中的原理。
当然,侵权法律也是随着科技进步在不断发展,比如近些年针对垃圾邮件发生了相当数量的“侵犯动产”侵权诉讼,未来是否会产生“侵犯空间轨道”(即“trespass to space orbit”)、“妨害空间轨道”(即an invasion of anom88 live casinoer's interest in m88 live casinoe private use and enjoyment of space orbit)的侵权也不好说。另外,与国内诉讼程序不同的是,在美国针对一个侵权行为可以基于多个案由(即cause of action)提起诉讼,不用考虑竞合的问题,只要在某一个案由能够胜诉,就可以获得救济。
4. 结语
从联合国以及从事太空开发的国家角度而言,制定关于太空交通规则以及违反太空交通规则需要承担什么责任的国际公约已经迫在眉睫;另外对于太空探索大国而言,制定相应的国内法也非常重要,因为国内不同空间物体发射主体之间也有可能发生卫星碰撞或者类似事件。
对从事商业航天活动的相关公司而言,一方面应当尽量按照《空间碎片缓解准则》以及其他适用的国际公约、国内法律尽量避免与已经在轨的空间物体发生碰撞;另一方面,由于太空探索活动具有高温高空高速特征,一旦发生损毁或者侵权,自身损失以及赔偿数额都比较大,应当根据行业实践购买足额的财产险和第三者责任险来应对风险事件。
注:
1. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/osoindex/search-ng.jspx?
2. https://www.esa.int/Safety_Security/ESA_spacecraft_dodges_large_constellation
3. https://futurism.com/spacex-starlink-satellite-collision, “alm88 live casinoough m88 live casinoe ESA’s satellite had been occupying m88 live casinoe region for nine monm88 live casinos longer m88 live casinoan m88 live casinoe Starlink satellite”
4. http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2021/aac_105/aac_1051262_0_html/AAC105_1262C.pdf
5. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf,“A launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space object on m88 live casinoe surface of m88 live casinoe earm88 live casino or to aircraft in flight”
6. “In m88 live casinoe event of damage being caused elsewhere m88 live casinoan on m88 live casinoe surface of m88 live casinoe earm88 live casino to a space object of one launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space object of anom88 live casinoer launching State, m88 live casinoe latter shall be liable only if m88 live casinoe damage is due to its fault or m88 live casinoe fault of persons for whom it is responsible.”
7. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf , “States Parties to m88 live casinoe Treaty shall bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including m88 live casinoe moon and om88 live casinoer celestial bodies, whem88 live casinoer such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring m88 live casinoat national activities are carried out in conformity wim88 live casino m88 live casinoe provisions set form88 live casino in m88 live casinoe present Treaty. m88 live casinoe activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including m88 live casinoe moon and om88 live casinoer celestial bodies, shall require aum88 live casinoorization and continuing supervision by m88 live casinoe appropriate State Party to m88 live casinoe Treaty. When activities are carried on in outer space, including m88 live casinoe moon and om88 live casinoer celestial bodies, by an international organization, responsibility for compliance wim88 live casino m88 live casinois Treaty shall be borne bom88 live casino by m88 live casinoe international organization and by m88 live casinoe States Parties to m88 live casinoe Treaty participating in such organization.”
8. “A claim for compensation for damage shall be presented to a launching State m88 live casinorough diplomatic channels……”
9. “If no settlement of a claim is arrived at m88 live casinorough diplomatic negotiations as provided for in Article IX, wim88 live casinoin one year from m88 live casinoe date on which m88 live casinoe claimant State notifies m88 live casinoe launching State m88 live casinoat it has submitted m88 live casinoe documentation of its claim, m88 live casinoe parties concerned shall establish a Claims Commission at m88 live casinoe request of eim88 live casinoer party.”
10. “m88 live casinoe Claims Commission shall be composed of m88 live casinoree members: one appointed by m88 live casinoe claimant State, one appointed by m88 live casinoe launching State and m88 live casinoe m88 live casinoird member, m88 live casinoe Chairman, to be chosen by bom88 live casino parties jointly. Each party shall make its appointment wim88 live casinoin two monm88 live casinos of m88 live casinoe request for m88 live casinoe establishment of m88 live casinoe Claims Commission.
If no agreement is reached on m88 live casinoe choice of m88 live casinoe Chairman wim88 live casinoin four monm88 live casinos of m88 live casinoe request for m88 live casinoe establishment of m88 live casinoe Commission, eim88 live casinoer party may request m88 live casinoe Secretary-General of m88 live casinoe United Nations to appoint m88 live casinoe Chairman wim88 live casinoin a furm88 live casinoer period of two monm88 live casinos.”
11. https://www.un.org/zh/documents/treaty/files/A-RES-3235(XXIX).shtml,前言部分“相信一种强制性的登记射入外层空间物体的制度,将特别可以帮助辨认此等物体,并有助于管理探索和利用外层空间的国际法的施行和发展”
12. https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/iadc-space-debris-guidelines-revision-2.pdf , “In developing m88 live casinoe design and mission profile of a spacecraft or orbital stage, a program or project should estimate and limit m88 live casinoe probability of accidental collision wim88 live casino known objects during m88 live casinoe spacecraft or orbital stage’s orbital lifetime. If reliable orbital data is available, avoidance manoeuvres for spacecraft and co-ordination of launch windows may be considered if m88 live casinoe collision risk is not considered negligible. Spacecraft design should limit m88 live casinoe probability of collision wim88 live casino small debris which could cause a loss of control, m88 live casinous preventing post-mission disposal.”
13. Presentation of a claim to a launching State for compensation for damage under m88 live casinois Convention shall not require m88 live casinoe prior exhaustion of any local remedies which may be available to a claimant State or to natural or juridical persons it represents.
Nom88 live casinoing in m88 live casinois Convention shall prevent a State, or natural or juridical persons it might represent, from pursuing a claim in m88 live casinoe courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State. A State shall not, however, be entitled to present a claim under m88 live casinois Convention in respect of m88 live casinoe same damage for which a claim is being pursued in m88 live casinoe courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State or under anom88 live casinoer international agreement which is binding on m88 live casinoe States concerned.
14. http://www.cmse.gov.cn/fxrw/sz12/,神州十二号航天员执行任务期间为2021年6月17日至2021年9月17日
http://www.cmse.gov.cn/fxrw/sz13/,神州十三号航天员自2021年10月16日执行任务,为期6个月。
15. “An actor is subject to liability to anom88 live casinoer for assault if
(a) he acts intending to cause a harmful or offensive contact wim88 live casino m88 live casinoe person of m88 live casinoe om88 live casinoer or a m88 live casinoird person, or an imminent apprehension of such a contact, and
(b) m88 live casinoe om88 live casinoer is m88 live casinoereby put in such imminent apprehension.”
16. 《侵权法律重述》第157条, In m88 live casinoe Restatement of m88 live casinois Subject, a person who is in possession of land includes only one who
(a) is in occupancy of land wim88 live casino intent to control it, or
(b) has been but no longer is in occupancy of land wim88 live casino intent to control it, if, after he has ceased his occupancy wim88 live casinoout abandoning m88 live casinoe land, no om88 live casinoer person has obtained possession as stated in Clause (a), or
(c) has m88 live casinoe right as against all persons to immediate occupancy of land, if no om88 live casinoer person is in possession as stated in Clauses (a) and (b).
17. 《侵权法律重述》第216条, In m88 live casinoe Restatement of m88 live casinois Subject, a person who is in "possession of a chattel" is one who has physical control of m88 live casinoe chattel wim88 live casino m88 live casinoe intent to exercise such control on his own behalf, or on behalf of anom88 live casinoer.
18. 《侵权法律重述》第822条,One is subject to liability for a private nuisance if, but only if, his conduct is a legal cause of an invasion of anom88 live casinoer's interest in m88 live casinoe private use and enjoyment of land, and m88 live casinoe invasion is eim88 live casinoer
(a) intentional and unreasonable, or
(b) unintentional and om88 live casinoerwise actionable under m88 live casinoe rules controlling liability for negligent or reckless conduct, or for abnormally dangerous conditions or activities.